1 By the contribution of labour and/or by introducing community-based distribution systems.
2 For instance, in most sub-Saharan African cities there is a very limited sewerage network.
3 The illegal dumping of rubbish by the poor and the non-poor is much more difficult to resolve, and municipalities frequently bear the cost of such dumping through their municipal sweeping/street cleaning functions.
4 See, for instance, the land-sharing initiatives of the municipality in Hyderabad in India in the early 1990s.
5 De facto tenure security can arise when inhabitants of irregular settlements do not feel under the threat of eviction. They do not have the paperwork confirming ownership, but they do not act as though they live at risk. This may be due, for instance, to legislation effectively making their occupation legal after a statutory period, or it may be because the municipality has installed services.
6 See, for instance, Suez Lyonnaise des Eaux, 1998; PDG, 2000b.
7 Heymans, 2000.
8 Cointreau-Levine, 2000, pp12-13.
9 Plummer, 2000, p21.
10 Foster, 1998; Plummer and Jones, 1999.
11 See for instance Plummer and Jones, 1999.
12 Cointreau-Levine, 2000.
13 Rivera, 1996, pp30-34.
14 Komives and Stalker Propky, 2000.
15 See, for instance, the work of Richard Franceys at IHE on connection costs.
16 The economic debate on subsidies is documented elsewhere. See Waddams Price, 2000, for a discussion on how subsidies can improve efficiency.
17 Waddams Price, 2000.
18 Ibid, referring to the work of Lovei et al, 2000,.