Even where gaps in human capital and physical assets have narrowed, differences in gender outcomes can still occur when males and females have unequal capacity to exercise agency and participate fully in all aspects of life.93
• Agency-sometimes called empowerment94-refers to an individual or group's ability to make effective choices, and to transform those choices into desired outcomes, free of violence, retribution or fear.95
• Full and equal participation requires that all people have voice-the ability to speak up, be heard, shape and share in discussions and decisions that affect them.96
Addressing voice and agency constraints, arguably one of the most challenging but potentially powerful aspects of promoting gender equality, requires engaging men and boys as change agents, and changing unequitable social norms, discriminatory laws and legal institutions. It also requires developing programs to promote economic opportunities, social protections and education.97
Imperfect but useful measurements of the current progress on achieving equitable voice and agency is done through proxies. They show:98
• Gender-based violence is a global epidemic that affects women across all regions of the world;
• Many girls have limited control over their sexual and reproductive rights;
• Fewer women than men own land and housing; and
• Women are underrepresented in the halls of power.
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93 WDR 2012.
94 Klugman et al, Voice and Agency: Empowering Girls for Shared Prosperity, World Bank, 2014.
95 Ibid.
96 Ibid.
97 World Bank Group Gender Strategy 2016.
98 Klugman et al, Voice and Agency: Empowering Girls for Shared Prosperity, World Bank, 2014.